Cross-references

Cross-references are terms that point users of an index from one heading to other headings where relevant information may be found, including page references. They establish a relationship from one term to one or more others - i.e., from a referent to a relatum or relata.

There are essentially two types of cross-references:

• Prescriptive cross-references point users from a heading having no page references or subheadings to one or more other headings that do. The heading is in the index because the indexer thought that some users are likely to use it when searching for information that has been indexed under one or more other headings. The most common of these is the see reference.
• Suggestive cross-references point users to one or more headings that specify information related to the information specified in the heading from which the cross-reference is being made. The most common of these is the see also reference.

See references are used to control antonyms, synonyms, pseudonyms, slang, and corporate or personal names having significant variants other than the form chosen as the main heading. They are also used to point from generic terms to specific terms when there is no information indexed under the generic term. As the following examples indicate, see references are placed immediately after the heading from which they are being made.

Nothing can be associated with a heading having a see reference: no page locators, no subheadings, no other cross-references. A heading it points to can have them, but it cannot have just another cross-reference.

See also references point from a heading with its own locators (and possibly its own subheadings) to one or more other headings that specify related information. One that points to headings specifying a subclass of the concept specified by the heading from which it is made is called a general-to-specific cross-reference; one that points to headings specifying concepts from a different class is called an associative cross-reference. Often, there are reciprocal see also references. When the document being indexed contains a significant amount of information about a named person or entity that was known by different names at different times, there may be a see also reference that points from a name to one or more synonymous names. In the following examples, the see also references are placed after the main heading. They may also be placed after the last subheading. Dyed-in-the-wool indexers debate which placement is best. The rest just use the applicable standard.

A general cross-reference may be used if there are too many headings to be listed individually. General cross-references refer users to a class of terms without naming any member of the class. Both see and see also references may be generalized. For example:

The decision to create a general reference depends as much on the available space as it does on the number of headings to be listed.

Guidelines for using cross-references:

• See and see also references may be made from main headings or subheadings.
• Ask your editor about the punctuation and formatting conventions to be used with your document.
• Do not wait until final editing to identify cross-references. Create see references when synonymy is encountered and see also references when relationships are noticed between headings.
• Only provide cross-references to main headings. If you absolutely must cross-reference a subheading, refer to the main heading in the relatum and separate it from its subheading using a colon. For example:
  echolalia. See tourette's syndrome: echolalia
• List multiple cross-references in alphabetical order and use semicolons to separate them. Semicolons make it possible to include inverted headings in the list of relata without also introducing possible confusion.
• Control all cross-references to a given heading. If the heading is changed or deleted, the cross-references also need to be changed or deleted. If you fail to do that, errors creep in.
• Use see references only if the relatum has three or more page references or its own subheadings. If not, double-post the entry under both headings. That saves space and it prevents forcing users to look elsewhere only to find one or two page references.
• Provide reciprocal see also references for general-to-specific and associative references. For example: if your index includes this reference,
  
  
  mandarin oranges. See also clementines
  
  provide a reciprocal see also reference from clementines to mandarin oranges.
• Do not provide reciprocal see also references for generalized references. For example: if your index includes this generalized see also reference,
  
  
  budgets. See also names of specific states
  
  do not provide a reciprocal see also reference from each state to budget.
• Generally, relata should be the complete form of their referent, including all punctuation and parenthetical phrases. However, it may be acceptable to abbreviate long referents. For example: see INCOSE may be an acceptable cross-reference to INCOSE (International Council on Systems Engineering). Its acceptability depends on: (1)INCOSE being clear and not being a heading itself, and (2) the editor's approval of abbreviated relata. Do not abbreviate referents if your editor does not approve of the practice.
• Check for and eliminate blind references and circular references. Blind references are cross-references that point to non-existent headings. Circular references occur when two see references point to one another and neither has locators.
• Use cross-references sparingly. Users become upset if they have to continually move back and forth to find what they are looking for.

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